Siege of Budapest
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The Siege of Budapest was a siege of the Hungarian capital city of Budapest, fought towards the end of World War II in Europe, during the Soviet Budapest Offensive. The siege started when Budapest, defended by Hungarian and German troops, was first encircled on 29 December 1944 by the Red Army and the Romanian Army. The siege ended when the city was unconditionally surrendered on 13 February 1945. The Soviet forces besieging the city were part of Rodion Malinovsky's 2nd Ukrainian Front. Formations that actually took part in the fighting appear to have included 53rd Army and 7th Guards Army, and portions of 3rd Ukrainian Front, including 46th Army. Arrayed against the Soviets was a collection of German Army (Wehrmacht Heer), Waffen-SS, and Hungarian Army (Honvédség) forces. The Siege of Budapest was one of the bloodiest sieges of World War II.
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General situation
By 1944, Hungary remained very much an unwilling satellite[2] of Germany. In March 1944, Hungary was attempting to quit the war, and was seen by Nazi Germany as reluctant to take sufficient measures against the Jews. Germany needed Hungarian oil wells located around Lake Balaton. On 19 March, the Germans launched Operation Margarethe and the German armed forces (Wehrmacht) entered Hungary. The Hungarian Regent, Admiral Miklós Horthy, put Hungary's attempts to quit the war on hold.
In October 1944, Horthy was caught negotiating peace with the Allies. On 16 October, the Germans launched Operation Panzerfaust, and forced Horthy to abdicate. Horthy and his government were replaced by "Hungarist" Ferenc Szálasi, from the Arrow Cross Party.
The Siege
Encirclement of Budapest
On 29 October 1944, the Red Army started its offensive against the city of Budapest. More than 1,000,000 men split into two operating maneuver groups rushed towards the city. The plan was to cut Budapest off from the rest of the German and Hungarian forces. On 7 November 1944, Soviet and Romanian troops entered the eastern suburbs of Budapest, 20 kilometers from the old town. On 19 December, after a necessary break, the Red Army resumed its offensive. On 26 December, a road linking Budapest to Vienna was seized by the Soviet troops, thereby encircling the city. "Leader of the Nation" (Nemzetvezető), Ferenc Szálasi, had already fled the city on 9 December.
As a result of the Soviet link-up, nearly 33,000 German and 37,000 Hungarian soldiers, as well as over 800,000 civilians, became trapped within the city. Refusing to authorize a withdrawal, German dictator Adolf Hitler had declared Budapest a fortress city (Festung Budapest), which had to be defended to the last man. Waffen SS General Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, the commander of the IX Waffen SS Alpine Corps, was put in charge of the city's defenses.
Budapest was a major target for Joseph Stalin. Indeed, the Yalta Conference was approaching and Stalin wanted to display his full strength to Churchill and Roosevelt. Therefore, he ordered General Rodion Malinovsky to seize the city as quickly as possible.[3]
On 29 December 1944, Malinovsky sent two emissaries to negotiate the city's capitulation. The emissaries never returned. This particular point is widely disputed by the Soviet Union, with some German and Hungarian historians arguing that the emissaries were deliberately shot by the Soviets. Others believe that they were in fact shot by mistake on their way back. In any case, Soviet commanders considered this act as a refusal and ordered the attack.
The start of the siege and first German offensive
The Soviet offensive started in the eastern suburbs, advancing through Pest, making good use of the large central avenues to speed up their progress. The German and Hungarian defenders, overwhelmed, tried to trade space for time to slow down the Soviet advance to a crawl. They ultimately withdrew to shorten their lines, hoping to take advantage of the hilly nature of Buda.
In January 1945, the Germans launched a three part counter-offensive codenamed Operation Konrad. Operation Konrad was a joint German-Hungarian effort to relieve the encircled garrison of Budapest.
On 1 January, Operation Konrad I was launched. The German IV.SS-Panzerkorps attacked from Tata through hilly terrain north of Budapest in an effort to break the Soviet siege. Simultaneously, Waffen-SS forces struck from the west of Budapest in an effort to gain tactical advantage. On 3 January, the Soviet command sent four more divisions to meet the threat. This Soviet action stopped the offensive near Bicske less than 20 kilometers west of Budapest. On 12 January, the German forces were forced to withdraw.
On 7 January, the Germans launched Operation Konrad II. The German IV.SS-Panzerkorps attacked from Esztergom towards the Budapest Airport. They tried to capture the airport in order to improve air supply of the city. This offensive was halted near the airport.
On 17 January, the last part of Operation Konrad was launched - Operation Konrad III. The German IV.SS-Panzerkorps and the III. Panzerkorps attacked from the south of Budapest and attempted to encircle ten Soviet divisions. This encirclement attempt failed.
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Combat intensification
Meanwhile, urban warfare in Budapest increased in intensity. Supplies became a decisive factor because of the loss of the Ferihegy airport just before the start of the siege, on 27 December 1944. Until 9 January 1945, German troops were able to use some of the main avenues as well as the park next to Buda Castle as landing zones for planes and gliders, although they were under constant artillery fire from the Soviets. Before the Danube froze, some supplies could be passed on barges, under the cover of darkness and fog.
Nevertheless, food shortages were more and more common and soldiers had to rely on finding their own sources of food, some even resorting to eating their own horses. Extreme temperatures also affected German and Hungarian troops.
Quite quickly, the Soviet troops found themselves in the same situation as the Germans had in Stalingrad. Still, their troops were able to take advantage of the urban terrain by relying heavily on snipers and sappers to advance. Fights broke out even in the sewers, as both Axis and Soviet troops used them for troop movement. Six Soviet marines even managed to get to the Castle Hill and capture a German officer before returning to their own lines - still underground. But such feats were rare because of ambushes set up by the Axis troops using local inhabitants as guides in the sewers.
In mid-January, Csepel Island was taken, along with its military factories, which were still producing Panzerfausts and shells, even under Soviet fire. Meanwhile in Pest, the situation deteriorated, with the garrison facing the risk of being cut in half by the advancing Soviet troops.
On 17 January 1945, Hitler agreed to withdraw all the remaining troops from Pest to try to defend Buda. All of the five bridges spanning the Danube were clogged with traffic, evacuating troops and civilians. On 18 January 1945, German troops destroyed the five bridges, despite protests from Hungarian officers.
The second German offensive
On 20 January 1945, German troops launched their second major offensive, this time south of the city, blasting a 20 km hole in Soviet lines and advancing to the Danube, threatening Soviet supply lines.
Stalin ordered his troops to hold their ground at all costs, and two Army Corps that were dispatched to assault Budapest were hastily moved south of the city to counter the German offensive. Nevertheless, German troops who got to less than 20 kilometres from the city were unable to maintain their offensive due to fatigue and supply issues. Budapest's defenders asked permission to leave the city and escape the encirclement. Hitler refused.
On 28 January 1945, German troops could no longer hold their ground and were forced to withdraw. The fate of the defenders of Budapest was sealed.
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The Battle for Buda
Unlike Pest, which is built on flat terrain, the city of Buda is built on hills. This allowed the defenders to place artillery and fortifications above the attackers, greatly slowing Soviet advance. The main citadel, Gellért Hill was defended by elite Waffen-SS troops that successfully repelled several Soviet assaults. Nearby, Soviet and German forces were fighting for the city cemetery. Fights on the shell-opened tombs would last for several days.
Fighting on Margaret Island, in the middle of the Danube, was particularly merciless. The island was still attached to the rest of the city by the remaining half of the Margaret Bridge and was used as parachuting area as well as for covering improvised airstrips set up in the downtown. From the Soviet side in fights on the island 25th Gds rifle division operated (losses see below).
On 11 February 1945, the Gellért Hill finally fell after a vicious Soviet attack launched from three points of compass simultaneously, after six weeks of fighting. Soviet artillery was finally able to dominate the entire city and to shell the remaining Axis defenders, who were concentrated in less than two square kilometres and suffering from malnutrition and diseases.
The experience of Joseph Szentkiralyi illustrates the privations experienced by many. Szentkiralyi had worked in the United States prior to World War II and had been deported back to Hungary. During the Siege of Budapest, he and his family endured constant artillery bombardment and street-by-street tank and infantry battles between the Germans, the remnants of the Royal Hungarian Army, and the attacking Ukrainian and Russian forces. Szentkiralyi, along with others, risked their lives by leaving the bomb shelters to butcher frozen horse carcasses in the streets to prevent starvation and help keep their families alive. At the end, daily rations consisted of melted snow, horse meat, and 150 grams of bread. Szentkiralyi narrowly escaped arrest and likely execution by the Soviets after the war's end, escaping to Switzerland.[4]
Despite the lack of supplies, the defenders refused to surrender and defended every street and house, fighting Soviet troops and tanks. By this time, some of the captured Hungarian soldiers defected and fought on the Soviet side. The Hungarians fighting for the Soviets were known collectively as the "Volunteer Regiment of Buda."
After capturing the southern railway station during a two-day bloodbath, Soviet troops advanced to the Castle hill. On 10 February 1945, after a violent assault, Soviet marines established a bridgehead on the Castle hill, while almost cutting the remaining garrison in half.
The third German breakout and surrender
Hitler still forbade the German commander, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch, to abandon Budapest or to attempt a breakout of the encirclement. But the glider flights (DFS 230) bringing in supplies had ended a few days earlier and the parachute drops had also been discontinued.
In desperation, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch decided to lead the remnants of his troops out of Budapest. The German commander did not typically consult much with the Hungarian commander of the city. However, Pfeffer-Wildenbruch now uncharacteristically included the Hungarian commander, General Iván Hindy, in this last desperate breakout attempt.
On the night of 11 February, twenty-eight thousand German and Hungarian troops began to stream down from Castle Hill. They moved in three waves. With each wave were thousands of civilians. Entire families, pushing prams, trod through the snow and ice. Unfortunately for the would-be escapees, the Soviets awaited them in prepared positions.
The troops, along with the civilians, used fog to their advantage. The first wave managed to surprise the waiting Soviet soldiers and artillery, and its sheer numbers allowed many to escape. The second and third waves were less fortunate than the first. Soviet artillery and rocket batteries bracketed the escape area, with deadly results. But, despite heavy losses, five to ten thousand people managed to reach the wooded hills northwest of Budapest and escape towards Vienna. 600-700 German soldiers reached the main German lines from Budapest.[5] Roughly a third of these soldiers belonged to the "Feldhernhalle" Panzergrenadier Division, and 170 to the Waffen-SS. The number of Hungarian escapees is around 80 (44 civilians, 25 Aross Cross Party militias and 11 man in military uniform (including 3 students and 1 policeman).[6]
The majority of the escapees were killed, wounded, or captured by the Soviet troops. Pfeffer-Wildenbruch and Hindy were among the captured.
On 13 February 1945, the remaining defenders finally surrendered. Budapest lay in ruins, with more than 80 percent of its buildings destroyed or damaged, and historical buildings like the Hungarian Parliament Building and the Castle in ruins. All five bridges spanning the Danube were destroyed.
Aftermath
In the end, eighty percent of Budapest's buildings were destroyed or damaged during the siege. German and Hungarian military losses were high with entire divisions destroyed. The Germans lost all or most of the 13.Panzer-Division, the 60.Panzergrenadier-Division Feldherrnhalle, the 8.SS-Kavallerie-Division Florian Geyer, and the 22.SS-Kavallerie-Division Maria Theresa. The Hungarian I Corps was completely destroyed. Hungarian divisions destroyed included the 10th Infantry Division, the 12th Infantry Division, and the 1st Armored Division. In January 1945, 32,000 ethnic Germans from within Hungary were arrested and transported to the Soviet Union as forced laborers. In some villages, the entire adult population were taken to labor camps in the Donets Basin.[7][8]:21 Many died there as a result of hardships and ill-treatment. Overall, more than 500,000 Hungarians were transported to the Soviet Union (including between 100,000 and 170,000 Hungarian ethnic Germans) .[9]:38
Civilian deaths and mass rape
When the Soviets finally claimed victory, they initiated an orgy of violence, including wholesale theft of anything they could lay their hands on, random executions, and mass rape. Some 40,000 civilians were killed, with an unknown number dying from starvation and diseases. During the siege, an estimated 50,000 women and girls were raped,[5]:348-350[10][notes 1] though estimates vary from 5,000 to 200,000.[11]:129 Hungarian girls were kidnapped and taken to Red Army quarters, where they were imprisoned, repeatedly raped, and sometimes murdered.[12]:70-71 Even embassy staff from neutral countries were captured and raped, as documented when Soviet soldiers attacked the Swedish legation in Germany.[13] (See for example: Raoul Wallenberg.)
Some losses of Soviet and Romanian forces
VII Romanian Army Corps: (for all January, in second half of January it has been deduced from structure of attacking forces)
- Corps staff - 7 killed, 3 missed, 19 wounded, 3 sick.
- 2nd Infantry Division - 147 killed, 29 missed, 654 wounded, 149 sick.
- 19th Infantry Division - 181 killed, 12 missed, 936 wounded, 42 sick.
- 9th Cavalry Division - 79 killed, 272 wounded, 6 sick.
18th Soviet Rifle Corps (66th Gds, 68th Gds, 297th, 317th rifle divisions, 1-10 January) - 791 killed, 50 missed, 2568 wounded, 72 sick.
25th Gds rifle division (20-31 January) - in all 452 men, including 29 killed.
All besieging force (1-10 February) - 1044 killed, 52 missed, 3411 wounded, 276 sick.
With the exception of Operation Spring Awakening (Unternehmen Frühlingserwachen), launched in March that year, the siege of Budapest was the last major operation on the southern front for the Germans. The siege further depleted the Wehrmacht and especially the Waffen-SS. For the Soviet troops, the Siege of Budapest was a final rehearsal before the Battle of Berlin. It also allowed the Soviets to launch the Vienna Offensive. On 13 April 1945, exactly two months after the Budapest surrender, Vienna would fall.[14]
Memoirs and diaries
The events of World War II in the Naphegy and Krisztinaváros neighborhoods of Budapest are told in a few remaining diaries and memoirs. László Deseő, a 15 year old boy in 1944, lived in 32 Mészáros Street with his family. This area was heavily attacked because of its proximity to the Southern Railway Station (Déli pályaudvar) and the strategic importance of the hill. Deseő kept a diary throughout the siege.[15] The memoirs of András Németh also describe the siege and the bombing of the empty school building which he and his fellow soldiers used as an observation post.[16] The memoirs of Heinz Landau, Goodbye Transylvania, present a German soldier's view of the battle. A richly detailed account of a 20-year-old Hungarian and his family living through the siege was published in 2010. It chronicled the clever strategies employed for survival, and limned the boredom and terror of a family that was trapped, but no means capitulating. Titled Pinball Games: Arts of Survival in Nazi and Communist Eras[17], the memoir was written by George F. Eber and published posthumously. Eber, who had became an internationally-known architect, included sketches with the memoir. One of them depicts a Russian soldier silhouetted against a Budapest wall on the first night the Germans were driven out of his neighborhood. The memoir also includes an account of WWII and the post-war transition of the country into Soviet-style Communism. The memoirs of the 14 years old dispatch runner of the Vannay Volunteer Batallion, Ervin Galantay, give an amazing insight into the battle and urban combat. The diary of the young runner describes day to day action and survival of both civilians and soldiers. It was published in English by the Militaria press in Budapest in 2005, under the title of "Boy Soldier".
See also
- Budapest Offensive
- Soviet occupation of Hungary
Additional reading
- John F. Montgomery, Hungary: The Unwilling Satellite. Devin-Adair Company, New York, 1947. Reprint: Simon Publications, 2002. Available online at Historical Text Archive and at the Corvinus Library of Hungarian History.
- Gosztony, Peter: Der Kampf um Budapest, 1944/45, München : Schnell & Steiner, 1964.
- Nikolai Shefov, Russian fights, Lib. Military History, M. 2002.
- James Mark. Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944–1945. Past and Present 2005: 188: 133-161 (Oxford University Press).
- Krisztián Ungváry, The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II (trans. Ladislaus Löb), Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10468-5
- Source about soviet casualties, estimated at 80,000, not 160,000: http://www.victory.mil.ru/war/oper/15.html
- Ervin V. Galantay. "Boy Soldier- Budapest 1944-45", Militaria press, Budapest 2005. 319p. With photos, sketches and footnotes.
Notes
- ↑ "The worst suffering of the Hungarian population is due to the rape of women. Rapes—affecting all age groups from ten to seventy are so common that very few women in Hungary have been spared." Swiss embassy report cited in Ungváry 2005, p.350. (Krisztian Ungvary The Siege of Budapest 2005)
References
- ↑ Glantz, David M., and Jonathan House. When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler. (Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1995. ISBN 0-7006-0899-0) p. 298
- ↑ "Hungary - The Unwilling Satellite". http://www.hungarian-history.hu/lib/montgo/.
- ↑ Deak, István, Endgame in Budapest, Hungarian Quarterly, Autumn 2005
- ↑ St. Clair, Joe (1996). "White Stag History Since 1933". http://whitestag.org/history/history.html. Retrieved 2008-08-03.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 Ungvary, Krisztian; Ladislaus Lob, and John Lukacs (April 11, 2005). The siege of Budapest: one hundred days in World War II. Yale University Press. pp. 512. ISBN 0300104685.
- ↑ "Budapest - The Stalingrad of the Waffen-SS" by Richard Landwehr
- ↑ Wasserstein, Bernard. "European Refugee Movements After World War Two, BBC history". http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/refugees_02.shtml.
- ↑ Ther, Philipp (1998). "Deutsche Und Polnische Vertriebene: Gesellschaft und Vertriebenenpolitik in SBZ/ddr und in Polen 1945-1956".
- ↑ "The Expulsion of 'German' Communities from Eastern Europe at the end of the Second World War". Florence: European University Institute. http://cadmus.iue.it/dspace/bitstream/1814/2599/1/HEC04-01.pdf.
- ↑ James, Mark. "Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944-1945". Past and Present (Oxford University Press) 188 (August 2005): 133–161. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/past_and_present/v188/188.1mark.html.
- ↑ Bessel, Richard; Dirk Schumann (May 5, 2003). Life after death: approaches to a cultural and social history of Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 376. ISBN 0521009227. http://books.google.com/books?id=NilW70Yol74C.
- ↑ Naimark, Norman M. (1995). The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949. Cambridge: Belknap. ISBN 0-674-78405-7.
- ↑ Birstein, Vadim (3 May 2002). "Johnson's Russia List". http://www.cdi.org/Russia/johnson/6225-9.cfm. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
- ↑ Isaev, A. V. 1945-y. Triumf v nastuplenii i v oborone: ot Vislo-Oderskoy do Balatona/1945th. Triumph both in offencive and in defence: from Vistula-Oder to Balaton. (Moscow, 2008. ISBN 978-5-9533-3474-7) pp. 196, 199, 201
- ↑ Deseő László naplója (Hungarian)
- ↑ Németh András – Mostohafiak (Hungarian)
- ↑ Pinball Games: Arts of Survival in Nazi and Communist Eras
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